Psychiatry - November 2008 - (Page 38)

IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT: GENERAL CONCEPTS Identity development is a lifelong process, beginning in early childhood and continuing into adulthood. The goal of this process is to answer “Who am I?” On the surface this sounds simple, but for many people it is a difficult question to answer. An individual’s identity is complex and consists of several different aspects or domains. As reviewed in a textbook by Tatum,2 Erikson stressed the impact of cultural, historical, and social context on identity development. According to Erickson, “identity formation employs a process of simultaneous reflection and observation, a process taking place on all levels of mental functioning in which the individual contemplates how others (society) perceive him and how he perceives himself.” According to Tatum,2 one’s identity is “shaped by individual characteristics, family dynamics, historical factors, and social and political context.” Examples include race, temperament, gender, age, intact or divorced family, community environment, exposure, socioeconomic class, sexual preference, religious beliefs, and present social and political climate. Much of what we think about ourselves is strongly linked to how we believe others see us and the feelings associated with those beliefs. If we receive or perceive negative or nebulous messages through our relationships with those with whom we are supposed to connect, positive identity development is difficult to achieve.3 Identity is a lifelong dynamic process that may fluctuate depending on circumstances. Identity formation begins at birth, becomes more prominent during adolescence, but continues to develop throughout adulthood. Identity is important because it influences our perception, behavior, and how we relate to others throughout our lifespan. characteristics. Although the history of the concept of race is beyond the scope of this article, it is important to note a few historical points to put things into context. According to the American Anthropological Association, in spite of scientific evidence to the contrary, people have been conditioned to view human races as natural and separate divisions. In fact, however, the “physical variations in the human species have no meaning except the social ones that humans put on them.”4 The concept of race became especially prominent in the US in the 18th century to describe the different populations in colonial America. Race was used to justify prejudicial attitudes and the mistreatment of enslaved people. Inferior and negative traits were attributed to the enslaved and superior traits were attributed to the Europeans to support the subordination of one racial grouping in relation to another. This attitude became entrenched in American society.4 Unfortunately, these perceptions of race did not die with the emancipation of slavery nor with the civil rights era. It has been argued that many of these perceptions are still present today but are subtle and inconspicuous, intentional and unintentional.4 Because of the emphasis our society places on race, understanding racial identity development is important and should not be ignored when working with any patient in psychotherapy. IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT MODELS Prior to the 1970s, identity development models for women in general and people of color were neither applicable nor objective. For example, the models theorized that there were inherent deficiencies of the African American personality. Theories were created on assumptions rather than empirical research and from the perception of individuals of the dominant culture with very limited exposure to African Americans. Consequently, this led to misinterpretation and misdiagnosis.3 Dubois was influential in developing and promoting a more realistic and RACIAL IDENTITY Race is a category manufactured or socially constructed to distinguish a group of people based on physical 38 Psychiatry 2008 [ N O V E M B E R ] objective re-examination in the African American experience and development in America. His contribution influenced Erikson and expanded Erikson’s perception of the African American identity and the variables that influence it.3 People of Color Racial Identity Model (PCRIM). There are several racial identity development (RID) theories. Cross developed one of the most popular RID theories, the Nigrescence Model of African American Identity. Initially published in 1971, the work was revised in 1991. It is now most often referred to as the People of Color Racial Identity Model (PCRIM). The original model was that race was assumed to be a part of an African American’s personal identity (PI), thus affecting the individual’s mental health functioning. African Americans who accepted values of white society were thought to be more likely to experience self hatred and low self esteem, and those who accepted African American values and identity were assumed to have a healthy mental functioning and high self esteem. In contrast, the revised theory hypothesized that self concept is made of two components: PI and reference group orientation (RGO)/group identity, which may differ from personal identity and have varied degrees of importance. PI refers to general personality features, such as traits, and is reflected in measures of general personality, psychopathology, and self esteem. RGO/group identity refers to the social group memberships that a person has. An individual may have more than one social group membership that may include race, gender, sexual orientation, and religion. According to Cross, PI and RGO differ because RGO is based on one’s preference, whereas PI is based on the individual’s perception of the individual’s own uniqueness. PI plays a minor role in African American identity according to the revised PCRIM theory, but RGO may play a significant role depending on, according to Cross, the importance, or salience, of race in the life of an

Table of Contents Feed for the Digital Edition of Psychiatry - November 2008

Psychiatry - November 2008 Editor's Message Editorial Advisory Board Contents PsychRx Letters to the Editor Measuring Adverse Events in Psychiatry Nonsuicidal Self Injury in Adolescents Relative Tolerability of Alzheimer's Disease Treatments Biracial Identity Development and Recommendations in Therapy Depression and Cardiovascular Disease: Just an Urban Legend? Three Risk Management Basics Journal Watch Classified Advertising Information for Authors

Psychiatry - November 2008

For optimal viewing of this digital publication, please enable JavaScript and then refresh the page. If you would like to try to load the digital publication without using Flash Player detection, please click here.