Instrumentation & Measurement Magazine 24-8 - 33

been defined and further studies are in progress for defining
suitable extrapolation techniques for the incoming 5G systems
[21], [28].
As for the measurement chain, it includes a frequency selective
instrument connected to either an external isotropic
or directive broadband antenna. The basic instrument is the
spectrum analyzer which can be equipped with dedicated
decoding capabilities for specific cellular transmission standards.
These features are particularly useful whenever the aim
of the measurement campaign is also to identify the contribution
of each cell of a cellular system. Indeed, in the case of 3G
and 4G systems, more cells operating nearby simultaneously
share the same carrier frequency and bandwidth; therefore, it
is possible to quantify the contribution due to each cell only if
such decoding capabilities are available. Otherwise, the overall
contribution is evaluated over a given bandwidth, and the
related value will be due to all cells simultaneously covering
that area.
Main Uncertainty Causes
The measurement of the RF Electric Fields requires the
use of suitable measurement chains and measurement
procedures to keep the overall measurement uncertainty
relatively low [20]-[22]. Besides the metrological features of
the elements constituting the measurement chain, further
factors of influence have to be considered and kept under
control to avoid unreliable exposure estimations. As an example,
the presence of the operator himself and/or other
metallic objects or surfaces close to the electric field probe
(in the case of broadband instrumentation) or the measurement
antenna (in the case of narrowband measurement
chains) can significantly affect the measurement results
as well as the channel fading caused by moving objects
in the measurement scenario and the measurand intrinsic
variability. This final factor mainly depends on the data
traffic and the number of users during the time interval in
which the measurements
are performed.
Furthermore, due to
the peculiarities of modern
communication
signals, which are often
characterized by spectrum
shapes and time evolutions
typical of noise-like
signals, the response of
the probe and the measuring
instrument can be
considered as a further
cause of uncertainty in
both broadband and narrowband
measurements.
Finally, whenever digitally
modulated signals
have to be analyzed and
measured, the instrument
November 2021
settings have to be carefully selected to avoid large measurement
errors (in terms of power either overestimations

Instrumentation & Measurement Magazine 24-8

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