The Catalyst Review September 2019 - 6

SPECIAL FEATURE

Recovery of Critical Materials from Recycling of EV Batteries, Fuel Cells and
Renewable Power Systems - CRM Supply-Demand Challenges
By Michelle K. Lynch, PhD

Over the last decade, demand has risen to an unprecedented level for a set of key critical raw materials (CRM) mainly consisting
of metals (precious metals, strategic transition metals and rare earths). CRM are strategic to a nation's prosperity and security
because they perform many vital functions in everyday life from electrical goods to medical equipment, industrial operations, energy
generation, and transportation. The supply of many CRM is quite limited, and each group is specific to certain countries-i.e., rare
earth elements (REE) in China and platinum group metals (PGM) in South Africa and Russia.
In 2017, the EU set out a list of 27 CRM
which are important for the European
economy. Subsequently, in 2018, the
US Department of the Interior issued
a notice of 35 mineral commodities
(including the 17 REE listed as one group)
considered vital to the country's national
security and economic prosperity (Dept.
of the Interior 2018). Figure 1 highlights
the key elements from the EC report, with
geographic concentrations indicating the
supply vulnerability (Moss et al. 2017).

Figure 1. Countries accounting for largest share of global CRM supply.

Clearly there is cause for concern where
over 80% and as high as 95% of CRM
supply stems from one country or region,
especially if those countries tend to be
Source: Moss et al. 2017
associated with political, social, and
environmental tensions (which is now
more widespread than in the past). Climactic factors are also predicted to take effect-including the increasing frequency of wet bulb
temperature environments where ambient temperatures of 35°C/100% humidity or 40°C/75% humidity are considered the limits for
human survival. Even when close to these conditions, the ability for humans to work outdoors becomes limited. Likewise, in those
regions the supply of water and electricity may become restricted as droughts become more common, and more energy is expected
to be needed for air conditioning on very hot days (>40⁰C). The need for secure supplies of metal originating outside of the worst
affected climate areas will become paramount.
Much of the pressure from the demand side for CRM has come from rapidly rising sales of automotive vehicles which all require
increasing amounts of CRM and electric vehicles (EV) which need specific battery metals and REE for permanent magnets. Renewable
energy is an increasing demand sector with the installation of renewable power systems (wind and solar). The existing staple market
of electronics continues to grow as does energy efficient lighting.
Catalysts are a key consumer of all classes of CRM. Pollution control catalysts for Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) vehicles have been
the largest market for Platinum Group Metals (PGM) for around 15 years now, having overtaken jewellery for first place. While PGM
demand from the autocatalyst market has contributed to tight supply-demand fundamentals and price spikes, it has always been
serviceable. However, as the vehicle fleet is diversifying to include plug-in hybrid and battery electric vehicles (PHEV and BEV) and
fuel cells (FCEV) with water electrolyzers needed to produce hydrogen, the picture is becoming more complex-potentially much
more PGM will be needed, as well as a whole host of additional CRM.
Future PGM supply-demand is being monitored closely by analysts and questions asked around the possibility of limitations on
technology deployment. For instance, even 10% proton exchange (or polymer electrolyte) membrane fuel cells (PEMFC) technology
deployment in the light duty vehicle (LDV) fleet at a future predicted platinum loading of 10 grams/100 kWh would soak up some
43% of the forecasted 2025 gross platinum supply of 8 million troy ounces/248 million tons (Wieber 2019). In reality, PEMFC will be
deployed across many sectors with lower unit volumes-e.g., heavy duty, shipping, rail, manual handling vehicles and, once reliability
has been established and technology moves on, the loading for a passenger car could be brought down to parity with a diesel engine
catalyst (e.g., 3-4 grams/vehicle).
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The Catalyst Review

September 2019

The Catalyst Review September 2019

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