Hydrocarbon Processing - January 2022 - 41

Biofuels and Alternative/Renewable Fuels
bon capture. The solid carbon can be used
for other applications. However, methane
is used as the feedstock and produces significant
upstream emissions. These emissions
can be reduced by using renewable
energy to drive pyrolysis.20
Green hydrogen
is the optimal solution, since it does
not produce emissions during production
or combustion. However, emissions associated
with renewable electricity production
are not considered.
Ammonia. While some may think of ammonia
as a hydrogen storage medium, ammonia
can be used as a fuel in marine engines.
In recent years, ammonia received
a lot of attention as a potential future
carbon-zero alternative fuel for the transportation
industry. For example, Kang and
Holbrook evaluated the feasibility of using
ammonia as a fuel in light-duty cars.21
Marine
shipping companies are also investing
in ammonia-fueled vessels and engines.
Ammonia is a beneficial fuel alternative,
since combustion produces only
nitrogen and water. It is already shipped
globally in huge quantities for the fertilizer
industry. Ammonia is a liquid at room
temperature and at moderate pressures,
meaning it is relatively easy to store, and,
despite common misconceptions, ammonia
can be relatively safe to use.
Anhydrous ammonia is primarily produced
from nitrogen and hydrogen via the
Haber-Bosch process. There are different
types of ammonia: gray/brown, blue, turquoise
and green. The lifecycle emissions
and prices are also dependent on the hydrogen
production. Nitrogen is separated
from air, using a low-energy technology.
Additional research is being conducted on
novel ways to produce ammonia. Biological
nitrogen fixation is a potential source
for green ammonia. It uses the nitrogenase
enzyme to catalytically convert atmospheric
nitrogen to anhydrous ammonia.22
Electrochemical cells can also be used to
convert water and nitrogen to green ammonia,
which can eliminate the need for
a separate hydrogen production step. Renewable
energy may be used in this process
to ensure zero carbon emissions.
With a density of 11.5 MJ/L, ammonia
is twice as dense as hydrogen and more
dense than liquid hydrogen.21
However,
ammonia is less dense than diesel and requires
less fuel tank capacity than hydrogen.
Since ammonia is a liquid fuel at room
temperature and has similar properties to
5
propane, it can be used in existing bunkering
facilities. Minor changes to materials
on vessels would be needed to ensure
safety on board. Material compatibility requirements
for shipping ammonia are well
known and can be easily implemented at
bunkering facilities and on marine vessels.
Regarding ammonia supplies, global
ammonia production would have to significantly
increase to meet global fuel
demand. All the raw materials are readily
available in the environment to meet the
demand; however, large amounts of electricity
will be required.23
More bunkering
facilities must be built to accommodate
the increased production.
The associated risk with using ammonia
is its toxic and corrosive nature.
While ammonia is a toxic chemical requiring
strict safety precautions, it is less
flammable than hydrogen and LNG. It
has the potential to emit nitrous oxide,
which can be eliminated with the use of
a catalyst to favor the reaction that produces
atmospheric nitrogen and water as
combustion products.
Corporations are in a race to develop
different engines to facilitate the use of
ammonia as a fuel. These technologies include
two-stroke and four-stroke ammonia
engines, as well as ammonia fuel cells
that will convert ammonia to hydrogen to
produce electricity. One major shortfall
of ammonia is its inability to ignite quickly.
Secondary fuels, such as hydrogen or
conventional fuels, could solve this issue
in a dual-fuel ICE. Another solution is to
develop a spark-ignited gas engine to facilitate
the combustion of ammonia.
Part 2. Part 2 will be published in the February
issue.
LITERATURE CITED
1
Sirimanne, S., et al., " Review of maritime transport
2019, " United Nations Conference on Trade and
Development, 2019, online: https://unctad.org/system/files/official-document/rmt2019_en.pdf
2
IMO,
" Initial IMO GHG Strategy, " IMO, London,
UK, 2018, online: https://www.imo.org/en/
MediaCentre/HotTopics/Pages/Reducinggreenhouse-gas-emissions-from-ships.aspx
3
Kallas,
S., " Roadmap to a Single European Transport
Area-Towards a Competitive and ResourceEfficient
Transport System, " European Commission,
2011.
4
U.S. EPA, " Renewable Fuel Standard Program:
Alternative Fuels, " https://www.epa.gov/renewablefuel-standard-program/alternative-fuels
Pavlenko,
N., B. Comer, Y. Zhou, N. Clark and D.
Rutherford, " The Climate Implications of Using
LNG as a Marine Fuel, " International Council on
Clean Transportation, January 2020, online: https://
19
20
11
theicct.org/publications/climate-impacts-LNGmarine-fuel-2020
6
DNV
GL, Highlight Projects in the LNG as Fuel
History, fact sheet, 2016, https://www.dnvgl.com/
Images/LNG%20as%20fuel%20highlight%20projects_new_tcm8-6116.pdf
7
8
Thomson,
H., J. Corbett and J. Winebrake, " Natural
Gas as a Marine Fuel, " Energy Policy, December 2015.
U.S. EIA, " Natural Gas Explained: LNG, " online:
https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/natural-gas/
liquefied-natural-gas.php
9
Saul, J. and N. Chestney, " New Fuel Rules Push
Shipowners to Go Green with LNG, " Reuters, August
15, 2018, online: https://www.reuters.com/article/
us-shipping-fuel-lng-analysis/new-fuel-rules-pushshipowners-to-go-green-with-lng-idUSKBN1L01I8
10
Parfomak,
P., J. Frittelli, R. Lattanzio and M. Ratner,
LNG as a Maritime Fuel: Prospects and Policy,
Congressional Research Service, February 2019,
online: https://sgp.fas.org/crs/misc/R45488.pdf
Alternative Fuels Data Center, " Fuel Properties
Comparison, " U.S. DOE, May 21, 2017, online:
https://www.afdc.energy.gov/fuels/fuel_properties.
php
12
MI News Network, " 10 Noteworthy LNG-Powered
Vessels, Marine Insight, November 5, 2020, online:
https://www.marineinsight.com/tech/10-noteworthy-lng-fueled-vessels
13
Pavlenko,
N., B. Comer, Y. Zhou, N. Clark and D.
Rutherford, " The Climate Implications of Using
LNG as a Marine Fuel, " International Council on
Clean Transportation, January 2020, online: https://
theicct.org/publications/climate-impacts-LNGmarine-fuel-2020
14
Alternative
Fuels Data Center, " Hydrogen Basics, "
U.S. DOE, online: https://afdc.energy.gov/fuels/
hydrogen_basics.html
15 Maritime
16
Industry Decarbonization Council,
" Alternative Marine Fuels, " online: https://midc.be/
alternative-marine-fuels
Mamlis, S., " Understanding the Potential of Hydrogen
as a Marine Fuel, " Safety4Sea, February 4, 2021,
online: https://safety4sea.com/understanding-thepotential-of-hydrogen-as-a-marine-fuel/?__cf_
chl_jschl_tk__=pmd_IlJlUi.ixeTztLykhkLsTLjQ43Isvn8m5pkdftDVpco-1630288035-0-gqNtZGzNAqWjcnBszQjR
17
18
Lan,
R. and S. Tao, " Ammonia as a Suitable Fuel for
Fuel Cells, " Frontiers in Energy Research, August 2014.
Pribyl, S. and J. Haines, " Future Fuels in the Maritime
Sector-Building the Bridge to Hydrogen, " Holland
& Knight, April 16, 2021, online: https://www.
hklaw.com/en/insights/publications/2021/04/
future-fuels-in-the-maritime-sector-building-thebridge-to-hydrogen
Howarth,
R. and M. Jacobson, " How Green is Blue
Hydrogen? " Energy Science & Engineering, August
2021.
Florence School of Regulation, " Between Green and
Blue: A Debate on Turquoise Hydrogen, " March 18,
2021, online: https://fsr.eui.eu/between-green-andblue-a-debate-on-turquoise-hydrogen
Complete
literature cited available online at
www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com.
DANIELA BUSHIRI is a Chemical
Engineer at the Refinery Automation
Institute, where she leads research
and development in marine green
fuel evaluations. Previously, she was
involved in a U.S. Gulf Coast refinery
blending modernization project.
She is pursuing a doctorate in chemical engineering
at Columbia University in New York.
Hydrocarbon Processing | JANUARY 2022 41

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Hydrocarbon Processing - January 2022

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