IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Magazine - September 2019 - 79

Normalized Difference Impervious Surface Index (MNDISI)
extracts UIS with an optimal threshold to distinguish UIS
from background features using Landsat TM, ETM+, and operational land imager-thermal infrared sensor (OLI-TIRS)
images. A Gaussian-based automatic threshold selection
method was used to determine the MNDISI threshold [176].
This approach can also be applied in regional and global UIS
detection in a rapid and automated manner. The Normalized
Urban Areas Composite Index (NUACI) extracts UIS at the
regional and global scales by combining DMSP/OLS, MODIS EVImax, and normalized difference water index (NDWI)
data. NUACI is suitable for medium to low-resolution RSIs
and depends on Terra MODIS reflectance and enhanced vegetation index products with higher space and time complexity, successfully calculating multiple parameters and using
multisource data to extract UIS [30].
However, Urban Index methods suffer from mixed pixels
and seasonal transitions with spectral reflection differences.
Mixed pixels can be easily misclassified and then influence
UIS detection accuracy. Moreover, in the same season, the
reflection values of different bands on the same ground
objects are different. Considering an example of Landsat 8
OLI data from Nanjing, China, a comparison of the spectral
reflection values of ground objects with different bands for
four seasons is shown in Figure 11. Nanjing has a subtropical

monsoon climate and four distinct seasons, divided into
winter (December-February), spring (March-May), summer (June-August), and autumn (September-November).
In Figure 11, ground objects are split into six categories
(i.e., clear water, turbid water, vegetation, bare soil, HIS,
and LIS). UIS (HIS and LIS) is more clearly distinguished
from other ground features in winter for the SWIR1 band;
in other seasons, the NIR band more effectively distinguishes features (the red line in Figure 11). Bare soil causes
the main disturbance in UIS, with high albedo in summer.
In the red-circled portions of Figure 12, UIS was misclassified as some bare soils in winter, and some roads were misclassified as vegetation in summer and autumn due to tree
shelter. Experiments have shown that summer and autumn
are helpful in reducing the interference of bare soil but increase the confusion between vegetation and LIS.
MULTISOURCE DATA FUSION MODELS
Remotely sensed data can be used in the feature extraction of
land cover that has been restricted by drawbacks in onboard
sensors and disturbances from the external environment. Multisource data fusion can leverage the respective advantages of
different data sources and compensate for deficiencies in individual data sources. It can also obtain more valuable features,
reduce the influence of so-called heterogeneous homogeneity

TABLE 3. A SUMMARY OF MAJOR INDICES FOR UIS EXTRACTION.
INDICES

EQUATIONS

APPLICATION SCALE

REFERENCES

Regional or global scale for medium
to low spatial resolution

[172]
[173]

SWIR 2 - NIR
SWIR 2 + NIR

Regional or global scale for medium
to low spatial resolution

[178]

NDII = VIS - TIR 1
VIS + TIR 1

Regional or global scale for medium
to low spatial resolution

[174]

Local or regional scale for high spatial
resolution

[179]
[176]

Regional or global scale for medium
to low spatial resolution

[175]
[14]

Regional scale for medium to low
and high spatial resolution

[177]

Regional or local scale for medium
to low spatial resolution

[176]

Regional scale for medium to low
spatial resolution

[30]

TIR - 6(VIS 1 + NIR + MIR 1)/3@
(1) NDISI v =
TIR + 6(VIS 1 + NIR + MIR 1)/3@

NDISI

(2) NDISI w =

TIR - 6(WI + NIR + MIR 1)/3@
TIR + 6(WI + NIR + MIR 1)/3@

WI = Green - SWIR 1
Green + SWIR 1
Urban Index (UI)
NDII

UI =

2SWIR 1 NIR
Green
+
SWIR 1 + NIR a NIR + Red
Green + SWIR 1 k
2SWIR 1 +
NIR
Green
+
SWIR 1 + NIR a NIR + Red
Green + SWIR 1 k

IBI
IBI =

NDBI

NDBI = SWIR 1 - NIR
SWIR 1 + NIR

BCI
BCI =
V=
MNDISI

H+ L - V
TC1- TC1min
2
; H=
;
H+ L + V
TC1max - TC1min
2

TC 2 - TC2 min
TC3 - TC3 min
; L=
TC 2 max - TC2 min
TC3 max - TC3 min

MNDISI =
TS =

Tb
1+ (mTb /t)ln e

NUACI
NUACI =

SEPTEMBER 2019

[TS - (WI + NIR + SWIR 1)/3]
[TS + (WI + NIR + SWIR 1)/3]

*

0, d 2 r d = (NDWI - a)2 + (ENI max - b) 2
a 1- dr k # OLS - OLS min , d # r
OLS max - OLS min

IEEE GEOSCIENCE AND REMOTE SENSING MAGAZINE

79



IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Magazine - September 2019

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