IEEE Systems, Man and Cybernetics Magazine - April 2022 - 12

ICD for IAS Development
Systems designers should be aware of user requirements
and preferences when designing automation and interface
as the two basic components of a human-machine system.
Conventional automation and interface are designed following
a technology-centered strategy based on task models,
as illustrated in Figure 2. To reduce user workload and
increase task efficiency and productivity, designers use a
task model to preplan and predesign automation functions
with an understanding of user requirements and preferences.
With the emphasis on how technology advances may
help allocate additional tasks to automation, technology
acts as an assistant to a user. Meanwhile, the user does not
take over the automation's tasks. Automation capability is
derived from the leftover and compensatory principles.
Basically, humans need to compensate with the functions
that have not been automated or that could not be automated
because of the machine limitations [19].
When more tasks are allocated to automation, humans
have difficulty in addressing performance issues, such as
loss of SA (out of the loop), loss of skills, overtrust (complacency),
or undertrust (skepticism) [9], [20]-[22]. Thus,
knowledge of a task model has been extended to include a
user model of how and what humans are doing such that
the machine may provide flexible support. This advanced
the design strategy from a technology-centered design
approach to a user-centered design (UCD) or human-centered
design (HCD) approach in the 1980s with the focus
shift from technological capabilities onto human needs
[23], [24]. The goal of HCD is to create designs (of products,
services, workspaces, systems, procedures, organizations)
that take into account the needs, capabilities, and limitations
of those who are using or being impacted by the
design for users' acceptance [24]. The need to assist
humans in a flexible fashion has subsequently fostered the
development of adaptive or adaptable automation as well
as adaptive or intelligent interface technologies [9], as
shown in Figure 2.
However, the human is only one of the many attributes
of a broader human-machine system. The design should
emphasize a system as a whole. Vicente [25] has posited
that a UCD approach is not always ideal, arguing that a
systems design perspective is more advantageous for correspondence
domain applications (safety and mission-critical
systems) [9]. For example, in the aviation, process
control, and medical fields as well as in warfare, a design
flaw in a medical instrument or weapon system can have
lethal and expensive consequences. The catastrophic
disaster at the Three Mile Island nuclear power plant in
Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, where a meltdown occurred in
1979, is a typical example in which the design disregarded
appropriate design principles for correspondence domain
applications [9], [26]. An issue with HCD has been further
identified as local optimization that fails to consider the
big picture and systems perspective [27]. Norman [27] then
recommended modifications of an insufficient HCD
approach to address issues for correspondence domain
applications with complex sociotechnical systems.
As machines replace humans in a variety of tasks and
slowly turn into independent entities, these issues regarding
human-machine interactions come to the forefront
[28]. Sheridan [1] suggests that, as the frontiers between
User Requirements/Preferences
Leftover/Compensatory Principle
Task Model
Conventional
Interface
Technology-Centered Design
1950s
Task + User Models
UCD/HCD
Adaptive Interface/
Intelligent Interface
1980s
Intelligent Adaptive
Interface
Task + System (User + Machine) + World Models
ICD
2010s
Intelligent Adaptive System
Figure 2. The evolution of a design strategy for interface and automation technologies as two critical
components of an IAS from technology-centered design to user-centered design (UCD) or human-centered
design (HCD), and then to ICD principles.
12 IEEE SYSTEMS, MAN, & CYBERNETICS MAGAZINE April 2022
Adaptive Automation/
Adaptable Automation
Static
Automation
Intelligent Adaptive
Automation

IEEE Systems, Man and Cybernetics Magazine - April 2022

Table of Contents for the Digital Edition of IEEE Systems, Man and Cybernetics Magazine - April 2022