IEEE Technology and Society Magazine - December 2020 - 46

reliability and predictability " (WP3-FR, own emp.).
Assuming reliability and predictability as well as issues
of " time " and " intervention " to be foundational for MHC,
we further analyzed the CCW discourse with respect to
associations between these values. As RQDA did not
offer a convenient approach for testing inter-code relationships [76], we alternatively proceeded with text mining and a search for word associations. A word cloud
(see Figure 4), visualizing all word stems which occurred
at least 70 times, reflects similarity of codes and relevant words.
Consequently, we screened the CCW corpus for associations occurring at least by 30% with respect to predictability.4 This revealed first that " predict " is sometimes
associated with aspects relating to the question of MHC.
For example, " agency " (56% of all occurrences of " predict " ), " dignity " (46%), " human control " (43%), " moral "
(34%), or " ethical " (30%) are associated with predictability. Second, testing for associations also showed that predictability is often (78%) associated with reliability.
Similarly, reliability is often associated across CCW documents with control ( " software control, " " human control " )
or agency (42%), " trustworthy " (70%) as well as " knowledge " (43%) or " consequence " (38%). At the same time,
" intervention " may be associated by at least 30% with
" overriding " (46%), " capacity " (38%), " conscious " (37%)
and " constrain " (38%).
As the preceding coding process revealed, " time " was
not only coded referring to statements directed at values,
but also with respect to elaborations on warfare (as well
as less substantially laden phrases like " in the
meantime, " " at the same time " ). Thus, there are many

words associated with " time, " among which some like
" faster " (36%), " able " (31%), or " deliberately " (30%) indicate the issue of time pressure and necessity of time to
intervene or decide, respectively. Yet, besides pointing to
enough time as a requirement for human control of
LAWS, associations of " time " also already reflected the
signifier's relevance of the current military discourse (see
section, " Influencing Discourses. " ).
Another group of values named across CCW documents did not seem to support the actual implementation of MHC. Among these was precision, which is
associated by 53% with efficiency, and military terms
like " troop " (52%), " military " (33%) and " Afghanistan "
(48%), " Syria " (33%), " Iraq " (30%), " Libya " (48%). At the
same time, precision was comparatively often used
along empirical examples of LAWS like " torpedo " (38%)
and negatively-laden words like " cruel " (48%) or " deteriorating " (33%). Similarly, efficiency was sometimes
associated with the same words as well as " easier "
(47%), " cost " (34%), or " kill " (34%). Screening for associations also suggests efficiency-related phrases not be
formulated alongside issues of control, ethics, and international humanitarian law.
The third group of codes within the category of values seemed to be neutral towards MHC, as the coding
process suggested. Values like " feasibility, " " suitability, "
and " sustainability " were present across documents, yet
the respective substantial understanding of these features did not become clear straightforwardly. Looking at
other word occurrences along feasibility raised the possibility of it constituting an empty signifier [77], rather
reproducing cost-effective ratio instead of proactively
supporting MHC (cf., 34% " rule, " 31% " advantageous, "
32% " commercial, " 40% " applicable, " 31% " certified " ).

Influencing Discourses

FIGURE 4. Cloud of word stems occurring at least 70 times.
4
As we conducted a word stem analysis, we eliminated numbers, punctuation, and capitalization. At the same time, words were reduced to their
stems. Thus, any associations presented here, are the respective co-occurrences of stems (e.g., " predict " instead of predictability or predictable and
" effici " instead of efficiency or efficient).

46

As our work carries discourse theoretical assumptions,
i.e., of discourses reproducing mindsets and practices,
we checked for codes referring to overarching societal
topics or thematic areas. Figure 5 reveals dominant
trains of thought functioning as points of reference
throughout argumentative structures.
" Ethics " as a structuring discourse of MHC was coded
almost 400 times across CCW documents. The frequency shows how ethical vocabulary serves as a dominant
frame for discussion. The relevance of ethics as a guiding discourse is also illustrated considering respective
sub-codes " hum_responsibility " (n=121) or " HL_principles " (n=205), with the latter clarifying the close link
between ethics and law ( " intern_law " n=349). While Pakistan states that " its [LAWS'] use should be considered
unethical and unlawful " 6b-PAK), paralleling law and ethics, other remarks stress the normativity of law due to its
causal links to ethics by respectively as well as actively

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