IEEE Technology and Society Magazine - Fall 2013 - 62

R 2 = 0.198
PNC
β = 0.485

PPI

R 2 = 0.519 R 2 = 0.819
ATT

β = -0.625

p < 0.001

R 2 = 0.423

ATB
β = 0.750

BI
β = 0.792

β = -0.231
FC

Fig. 3. Structural model including parameter estimates and variance.

instance appears to be influencing the generally positive attitudes
toward technology. One reason for
this might be the (deliberate) lack
of explicit justification, which may
have improved attitude toward use
of the technology.
ATT shows a strong relationship
with ATB (β = 0.750), explaining
82% of the variance. The behavior
in this study (wearing the tag) is
strongly associated with the technology itself. The salient characteristics of the system (e.g., position on
the body) are influencing the attitude towards the technology itself,
which are in turn influencing attitudes towards the way the device is
intended to be used (as anticipated
through affordance). This demonstrates the propagation of influence through the model, which is
further supported by the strong
relationship between ATB and BI

is visible [25]. This suggests that
participants salient perception is
that they are not obliged to where
the tag. We are likely to see different values for this relationship
if the tag were strongly justified or
enforced for use in the workplace.
Given attitudes towards the device,
it is apparent that participants who
felt they had a choice in wearing
the tag would likely exercise it.
Combined, fC and ATB explain
42% variance in BI, which suggests that the other factors that
were not included for testing in the
PSA-BI model may be important in
explaining the remaining variance.
The study is limited in a number of ways: the hypothetical introduction of a device may not have
invoked realistic responses from
participants, although participants
were able to cognitively place the
device in their own environments.

The potential for ubiquitous
monitoring is significant, and it
stands to influence almost every
aspect of our lives.
(β = 0.792); as anticipated based on
the TPB [9].
There is also a weak relationship (β = -0.231) between fC and
BI, where the more control/choice
a person feels they have in wearing the device, the less likely they
are to wear it. This is a particularly
interesting result, as Japanese people frequently comply with obligations when their behavior (in this
case wearing/not wearing the tag)
62

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Secondly, it should be acknowledged
that the sample size and response
rate were small, limiting the generalizability of the results. However,
the sample was sufficient to justifiably perform an analysis using
SEM, and provides some insights
into Japanese perceptions of workplace UM systems. finally the prediction of the behavioral intention
to wear the tag was not validated,
which will require further studies.

Aside of these limitations, a
number of important conclusions
can be drawn from this study. It
is interesting to observe that there
are clear patterns in participant's
salient perceptions of the device.
It suggests that people, when first
presented with a device, think
along similar lines. A better understanding of salient perceptions
could lead to more effective ways
of introducing technology to new
users. The results also provide
an interesting insight into how
Japanese people negatively view
and, saliently perceive, monitoring technologies in the workplace,
where personal space and privacy
invasion appear to be prominent
issues. This is in direct contrast to
the more positive and open view
to the technology we expected.
The results of this study suggest
that choice and privacy are more
important to Japanese people than
first anticipated.

Social Implications
and Considerations
The potential for ubiquitous monitoring is significant, and it stands
to influence almost every aspect of
our lives. As such, from the results
in this study and previous work in
the area, we present a number of
reflective social implications and
considerations.
Salience and Acceptance
of Monitoring Technology
When users are first presented with
a technology, their initial reactions
may have a lasting effect on subsequent interactions. Interestingly,
given that much of ubiquitous computing is intended to be embedded
and hidden from view, there is in
fact likely to be little to "react" to.
This places stronger emphasis on
the initial assumptions that users
make given the limited information available. Particularly given
the degree to which such embedded systems will be able to silently
manage and support large aspects
of our daily activities. Hence,

IEEE TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY MAGAZINE

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fALL 2013



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