IEEE Technology and Society Magazine - Fall 2014 - 10
keys must be large enough to foil key-trial, in which an
Internet? By enciphering the purchase authorization
intruder tests all possible keys, deciphering the cipherprior to transmission to the seller, it might prevent an
text with each until it finds meaningful plaintext. Since
Internet eavesdropper from recovering the credit card
the cryptographic algorithm is not secret,
data. Since both DES and AES are symas in the widely used Data Encryption
metric cryptographic encryption, the
A public key
Standard (DES) and Advanced Encrypsame key must be known by both the
cryptographic
tion Standard (AES), the success in hidseller and buyer. When the State Departsystem assumes ment needs to securely send a message
ing the plaintext depends on keeping the
key secret.
from Washington to Moscow, it makes
that with
IBM Research was fortunate havprior arrangements to have a courier
knowledge
ing hired Horst feistel who had fled
deliver the key to the embassy in Mosof the public
Germany in 1935. He was educated in
cow. This is not feasible in the environkey, it remains
Zurich and later worked at the Air force
ment of the Internet. How can the same
Cambridge Research Center in Massacomputationally secret key be made available to the two
chusetts where he learned the principles
parties in e-Commerce? A new idea was
infeasible to
of cryptography. When he came to IBM,
needed.
calculate the
Horst used this knowledge to invent the
A solution was proposed in a 1976
private key.
cryptographic algorithm Lucifer, which
seminal paper [2] by Whit Diffie, then a
morphed into the DES approved in
graduate student at Stanford University
1977 as the federal Information Processing Standard
and his advisor, Professor Martin Hellman, a former
(fIPS) 46-1. While DES was reaffirmed as a standard
IBM Research Staff Member. They suggested the use
four times, the National Institute of Standards (NIST)
of asymmetric encryption or a public key cryptographic
wrote in December 1998.
system (PKS) which would use a non-secret public key
and a secret private key. A PKS assumes that with knowlAt the next review (1998), the algorithm speciedge of the public key, it remains computationally infeafied in this standard will be over twenty years
sible to calculate the private key. Because a symmetric
old. NIST will consider alternatives which offer
algorithms are usually more computationally intensive
a higher level of security. One of these alternathan symmetric counterparts, the parties in e-Commerce
tives may be proposed as a replacement stanwould use a symmetric algorithm to encipher their comdard at the 1998 review.
munications. The buyer would 1) generate a traditional
AES/DES key K, 2) PKS-encipher K with the seller's
In January 1997, NIST solicited proposals in the
public key, and 3) transmit the resulting (enciphered) key
federal Register for the AES. The cryptographic algoto the seller. The seller would use its private key to PKSrithm Rijndael, designed by the Belgian researchers
decipher the encrypted key, thus discovering which K the
Joan Daemen and Vincent Rijmen, was announced as
buyer had selected. Thereafter, the buyer could provide
the winning algorithm in October 2000 and is specicredit card information securely to the seller using DES/
fied in fIPS-197. AES is structurally similar to DES
AES encryption with key K.
but with a much larger nominal key size.
Netscape developed the Secure Sockets Layer
Cryptography has become both relevant and impor(SSL) protocol, precursor to the current Transport
tant in our lives, not only as a result of ATM-simplified
Layer Security (TLS) protocol for use with its Navibanking, but due to the emergence of e-Commerce, the
gator browser, the Google Chrome of yesteryear. In
purchasing of products and services conducted over
the language of TLS and SSL the buyer is a client,
electronic systems like the Internet. In normal commerthe seller is a server and these parties are connected
cial transactions, the parties meet together and sign a
using a web browser, for example, Google Chrome.
contract specifying the details of their transaction. When
TLS specifies the steps needed to support the secure
something is purchased on the Internet, the buyer and the
exchange of information over the Internet, by using
seller are not in physical contact and each party requires
the browser software to carry out the steps with only
something from the other to be more certain of the conminimal intervention by the buyer. Once a secure
tract. When a buyer makes a credit purchase on the Intersocket connection was established, e-Commerce could
net, the seller must receive authorization to charge the
be carried out securely and business could flourish.
buyer's credit card. This authorization cites the purchase
Perfect, except the Diffie and Hellman's paper
details and includes the buyer's credit card number, its
did not truly provide a viable example of a PKS. Two
expiration date and the card verification value.
years later, Ronald Rivest (of M.I.T.), Adi Shamir (of
These last pieces of information are sensitive
the Weizmann Institute in Israel), and Len Adelman
and must be otherwise kept secret. How can a buyer
(then at M.I.T. and later at USC) produced the first
securely transmit this information to the seller over the
true PKS, referred to as RSA [3].
10
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IEEE TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY MAGAZINE
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fALL 2014
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