IEEE Technology and Society Magazine - March 2023 - 50

Feature
defined in the military environment so far. Based
on research conducted in [36], the principal challenge
of motion planning and execution capability is
to describe the level of least intervention of human
supervision in the cooperation attempt. Finally,
another challenge related to AS perception is to
describe the environment that can be more similar
to human perception. Consequently, Hodicky and
Prochazka [36] acknowledged that a solution to the
mentioned challenges and better comprehension of
AS and AS-human interaction might be a common
ontology for AS operationalization.
Challenges to the establishment of ASs
Other challenges to the establishment of ASs
include technological constraints, economic limitations,
as well as ethical and legal concerns [37],
[38]. There are numerous debates regarding the use
of lethal ASs during the war. The entirety of these
arguments includes accepting responsibility for the
failure of an AS, violation of war rules, nonacceptance
of ethical robots to monitor human fighters,
and also the presence of a problem with assigning
a specific goal for each independent system. The
other challenges involve refusing to carry out command
by an AS, destructive effects on society due
to the existence of lethal robots, expanding the use
of ASs in various countries, and the use of these specific
robots by a terrorist [38].
Resilience challenges for ASs
Two resilience challenges for ASs are discussed
in [39]. Resilience by design means that the developed
cyber systems should be robust to large-scale
quantifiable perturbations, and resilience by reaction,
which is used in the cyber systems during a disturbance
at run time and strengthens the system by a
bounce back ability.
Opportunities and risks of emerging
technologies
The specific technologies, whose development
or practical applications are possible to obtain or
achieve, yet not obtained or achieved, are termed
emerging technologies [42]. The five emerging technologies
that are worth investing in are: 1) sensing
and mobility; 2) advanced AI and analytics; 3) postclassical
compute and communications; 4) augmented
human; and 5) digital ecosystems [43].
50
Among the aforementioned technologies, AI as a
pervasive process is used in the most critical technologies,
namely adaptive machine learning, edge
AI, edge analytics, explainable AI, AI platform as a
service (PaaS), transfer learning, generative adversarial
networks, graph analytics, and ASs [43]. AI
technologies provide an essential capability for ASs.
An AS must be able to learn from past experiences
and take action based on what it has learned [44].
The primary foundation of AI is machine learning,
which creates knowledge for computers through
data, observations, and interactions with the world
around them [45]. Therefore, the capability AI gives
to ASs is provided through machine learning.
In Table 2, opportunities and risks of emerging
ASs in the military, road logistics, and healthcare
are discussed. In addition to the opportunities presented
in Table 2, practical (internal) and conditional
(external) risks have been raised. It should
be noted that internal challenges include technical,
personnel, and training issues, and external
risks contain perceptions, ethical, legal, military,
and political subjects [46]. Challenges of AS health
include the system's incorrect decision making due
to faults from sensors, the system's misbehavior due
to faults from actuators, and the system's malfunction
due to faults from electronic components. ASs
encounter various challenges to ensure their safe
process. These systems must be designed to accurately
sense their surroundings area, deal with any
anomalies in the environments, and make decisions
consistent with the primary purpose of ASs. Also,
ASs in teams, including humans and robots, may
harm other members of the group by synchronizing
with their actions and refusing disorders. Besides,
an AS must be able to detect any malfunctions and
failures, early warning, and respond quickly to the
identified system defects. The security challenges
in ASs are the security of hardware and software,
as well as the security of communication links. ASs
must be designed so that humans can interrupt them
during emergencies. To achieve these conditions,
task priorities, operations, interruption frequency,
and timings must be considered; however, the main
challenge of human-machine interaction is the
complete identification of humans. This challenge
is due to the diversity, complexity, uncertainty, and
emotional expression of human beings [41].
This article presents an overview of public policy
challenges, regulations, oversight, and technical and
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