IEEE Technology and Society Magazine - September 2022 - 61

therefore, is not to evaluate the reach of these terms.
Rather we use the term false information to encompass
the online materials encountered by survey
respondents.
Methodology
The empirical strategy of this research design is
to survey users of private messaging apps in Canada.
A national representative survey was conducted
online between 17 and 22 March, 2021, with a sample
of 2,500 residents of Canada over the age of 16.
Before being administered, we interviewed experts
to inform our overall study design and questionnaire
development [38]. A random sample of research
study participants was voluntarily invited to complete
the survey which included response quotas to
ensure the results were representative by language,
age range, gender, and region. The central task of
this survey was to collect up-to-date detailed data
on the use of private messaging apps in Canada
including demography, frequency of use, levels of
trust toward messages received, and the typologies
of false information users are most exposed to. The
data were weighted according to the latest Canadian
census to ensure that the sample matched Canada's
population by age range, gender, educational attainment,
and region. The margin of error for a comparable
probability-based sample of the same size would
be ±2 percentage points, 95% of the time.
Results
Overall, 83% of respondents (Figure 1) reported
using at least one private messaging app in the last
year. Facebook's three messaging services-Messenger,
WhatsApp, and Instagram-remained the dominant
private messaging platforms used by those in
Canada. The proportion of Canadians that reported
using Messenger, WhatsApp, Snapchat, and WeChat
in the last year were all consistent with past surveys
in 2019 and 2020 [39].
All private messaging apps decreased in use
with age (Figure 2). Four messaging apps had significantly
different use patterns across age groups.
Instagram, Snapchat, Discord, and TikTok were all
used by a minority of those aged 45 and older, while
used by significant proportions of those aged 16-29
(Figure 2).
Several apps had very different user profiles
by race/ethnicity and language (Tables 1 and 2).
For example, WhatsApp was used by one in four
September 2022
n = 2,451
" Have you used any of the following messaging apps in the
last year? "
Figure 1. Top private messaging apps in
Canada.
respondents who identified as White, but over 70%
of respondents who identified as East Asian, South
Asian, or Black, as well as those who spoke a language
other than English or French at home. WeChat
was used by nearly one in three respondents who
identified as East Asian and 48% of those who spoke
Cantonese or Mandarin at home, but by a minority of
other respondents.
Using messaging apps for news
When asked which sources respondents use to
stay up-to-date with the news or current events, 21%
61

IEEE Technology and Society Magazine - September 2022

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