IEEE Technology and Society Magazine - Spring 2014 - 61

Conditions

Participants

Long-Term/Short-Term/
Planned/Sudden Disaster

Population

Earthquake/Tsunami/
Flood/Bushfire

Action

Situation
Awareness

Pre-event/During
Event/Post-event

Heavy Traffic

Principles

Authoritative Source

Trust

Timely, Honest,
Comprehensive
Information

Compliance

Clear, Consistent,
Persuasive Message

Knowledge of Rules
and Procedures

Risk and
Preparedness
Information
Data
Gathering
Agencies
First
Psychological
Aid

Accessibility

Warning and
Instruction

Failure of HardwareDependent Channels
Infrastructure

Requesting
Help

Population

Emotional
Discharge

Social Order
Social Networks

Limited Cognitive Capacity

Social Disintegration

Fig. 2. Disaster and emergency communication.

specific events, and simulations of
disaster response processes. The
general conclusion is that social
media induce considerable changes
related to the range of participating
actors and their roles; the hierarchy
of needs and goals; and the issues
that require attention.

Participants
Social media significantly enlarge
the circle of actors who may participate in various communicative
activities related to disaster and
emergency. These actors include
disaster response organizations,
official emergency broadcasting
organizations, professional newsmakers, the directly and indirectly
affected population, members of
online social networks, bloggers,
website administrators, the broader
online population, and so on. In
addition to traditional distinctions between organizations and
individuals, the participants may
need to be categorized in terms of
the human/cyber line, since bot

and troll spam is a serious issue.
Indeed, social media users should
be approached as audiences with
different needs, determined by their
position in relation to the event. It
is necessary to distinguish between
those whose lives and health are at
risk; those who are not at risk but
may worry about family or friends
and/or want to provide assistance;
and distant observers, whose main
intention is to serve as information
conduits [61].
Due to social media's innovative and ambiguous status as an
emergency communication channel,
there is uncertainty about various
participants' roles during different
disaster phases, their expectations
and responsibilities regarding the
quality of information, their ability to
verify data, their authority to provide
advice or make decisions related to
the urgency of a request, and so on.

Needs and Uses
The situation is further complicated due to the multifunctional

IEEE TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY MAGAZINE

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SPRING 2014

nature of social media. They can
and are used as communication
media, broadcasting channels, and
loci of social interaction within
dynamic and diverse networked
communities. Social media can
be used to satisfy such traditional
needs as individual and community situation awareness and
preparedness, individuals' help
requests and search for information related to self-protection and
survival, agencies' collection of
feedback and context-specific
data, and the provision of psychological first aid. Moreover, social
media may create a sense of connectedness, thus contributing to
community resilience. They can
also serve as an important recovery element by informing and
mobilizing the broader and global
communities to provide relief. At
the same time, social media may
facilitate forums for discussion
and social interaction triggered
by an event (particularly in cases
of socio-political crisis) but not
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