IEEE Technology and Society Magazine - March 2017 - 15

selectively inhibit fear responses
by shining light on neurons in
the basal amygdala - the same
region that is being investigated
as a target for electrical stimulation
[13]. However, optogenetics relies
on the ability to make specific cells
sensitive to light. Clinical trials for
this technique are currently underway to evaluate the safety and
effectiveness of optogenetics to
treat a variety of conditions, including certain types of blindness and
chronic pain [14].

[3] N. R. Council, Opportunities in Neuroscience for Future Army Applications.
2009.

Future Directions

[6] J. M. R. Delgado, "Free Behavior and
Brain Stimulation," in International Review
of Neurobiology, vol. 6, C. C. P. and J. R.
Smythies, Ed. Academic Press, 1964, pp.
349-449.

Implantable neurotechnology carries a great deal of therapeutic
potential. Someday, it may even hold
the potential to enhance humans
beyond their natural capabilities.
However, behind each clinical trial
are decades of basic research.
This research is essential for neuroscientists to better understand
brain function, and for engineers to
design better materials, algorithms,
and software. In addition, each technological advance raises new ethical questions about the future of
psychiatric care, the accessibility of
these treatments, and their potential
harms. It is imperative that researchers, physicians, patients, and politicians alike continue to have an
open dialogue about the future of
implantable brain technology in
order to ensure that these advances
continue to benefit those who most
need the treatments.

Cognitive Enhancement
These advances in medical technology are inextricably linked to discussions of human augmentation,
especially in the context of military
research. However, the existence
of "super-soldiers" enhanced by
brain implants are far from a reality.
Although a great deal of progress
has been made in animal models
towards aims such as accelerated
learning and increased memory
capacity using implantable brain
technology, research in humans
is currently limited to therapeutic
applications. Even if the therapeutic
applications were to augment function beyond current human capabilities, it is still an open question
whether or not the risks would be
deemed acceptable for non-clinical
populations. The only precedent
for cognitive enhancement comes
from pharmaceuticals, which are
often used to keep soldiers alert.
Similarly, non-invasive brain stimulation (transcranial direct current
stimulation (tDCS) and transcranial
magnetic stimulation (TMS)) techniques are being investigated for
accelerated learning, improved decision making, and alertness. However, unlike an implanted device,
these substances and techniques
can be used on a per-need basis.

march 2017

While they do carry risks, both long
and short term, their use can be discontinued once they are no longer
needed. A brain implant, although
considered reversible, carries the
risks of surgery at both implantation and at removal, and cannot
be replaced or repaired outside of
a hospital.

Author Information
The author is co-founder and science
director of NeuroTechX. She is currently pursuing a degree in cognitive
neuroscience at McGill University.

References
[1] "Systems-Based Neurotechnology for
Emerging Therapies (SUBNETS)." [Online].
Available: http://www.darpa.mil/program/
systems-based-neurotechnology-for-emergingtherapies. [Accessed: 21-Nov-2016].
[2] "Restoring Active Memory (RAM)." [Online].
Available: http://www.darpa.mil/program/
restoring-active-memory. [Accessed: 27-Nov2016].

∕

IEEE Technology and Society Magazine

[4] A. Parent, "Giovanni Aldini: from animal
electricity to human brain stimulation,"
Can. J. Neurol. Sci. J. Can. Sci. Neurol.,
vol. 31, no. 4, pp. 576-584, Nov. 2004.
[5] J. Olds and P. Milner, "Positive reinforcement produced by electrical stimulation of
septal area and other regions of rat brain,"
J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol., vol. 47, no. 6,
pp. 419-427, Dec. 1954.

[7] J. Gardner, "A history of deep brain
stimulation: Technological innovation and
the role of clinical assessment tools," Soc.
Stud. Sci., vol. 43, no. 5, pp. 707-728, Oct.
2013.
[8] "Treatment of PTSD - PTSD: National
Center for PTSD." [Online]. Available: http://
www.ptsd.va.gov/public/treatment/therapymed/treatment-ptsd.asp. [Accessed: 21-Nov2016].
[9] "PTSD and Substance Abuse in Veterans - PTSD: National Center for PTSD."
[Online]. Available: http://www.ptsd.va.gov/
public/problems/ptsd_substance_abuse_
veterans.asp. [Accessed: 20-Nov-2016].
[10] "Promising results seen from deep
brain stimulation in combat Veteran with
treatment-resistant PTSD." [Online]. Available: http://www.research.va.gov/currents/
1015-4.cfm. [Accessed: 21-Nov-2016].
[11] "Deep Brain Stimulation of the Amygdala for Combat Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder - Full Text View - ClinicalTrials.
gov." [Online]. Available: https://clinicaltrials
.gov/ct2/show/NCT02091843?term=NCT02
091843&rank=1. [Accessed: 21-Nov-2016].
[12] D. Gagliardotto, "The Role Of The
Medial Prefrontal Cortex In The Contextual
Fear Memory Of Rats Using Optogenetics,"
Thesis, University of Delaware, 2016.
[13] E. E. Steinberg, D. J. Christoffel, K.
Deisseroth, and R. C. Malenka, "Illuminating
circuitry relevant to psychiatric disorders
with optogenetics," Curr. Opin. Neurobiol.,
vol. 30, pp. 9-16, Feb. 2015.
[14] K. Bourzac, "In First Human Test of
Optogenetics, Doctors Aim to Restore Sight to
the Blind," MIT Technology Review. [Online].
Available: https://www.technologyreview
.com/s/600696/in-first-human-test-ofoptogenetics-doctors-aim-to-restore-sight-tothe-blind/ [Accessed: 27-Nov-2016].

http://http:// http://www.ptsd.va.gov/public/treatment/therapy http://www.ptsd.va.gov/ http://www.research.va.gov/currents/ https://clinicaltrials https://www.technologyreview http://www.darpa.mil/program/ http://www.darpa.mil/program/

Table of Contents for the Digital Edition of IEEE Technology and Society Magazine - March 2017