IEEE Technology and Society Magazine - December 2016 - 57

Thought experiments are the basis of most science
fiction stories and movies because they allow us to
imagine what are called logical entailments, i.e., what
would follow if such worlds actually existed. Within the
field of philosophy itself, my two main areas of expertise involve critical thinking and ethics. And so I wish
to think critically about the ethical entailments involving the current and future developments of artificial
intelligence (AI) - specifically, that of emergent consciousness and the potentiality of what I call the Frankenstein Effect.

The Development of AI
There is, by now, little doubt that the drive to develop the
first sentient and conscious form of artificial intelligence
is globally prevalent. In labs throughout the world in
both public and private sectors, the development of AI in
varying aspects is occurring at an ever-quickening rate.
Google has purchased such companies as Boston
Dynamics (robotic animals), Nest (wireless learning thermostats), and Deep Mind (AI mimicking human thought),
and they, as well as a number of other private and academic initiatives such as M.I.T., Stanford, Berkeley, UBC,
Caltech, IBM, Carnegie Melon, Wellcome Trust, etc., are
very much interested in the development of various
aspects of AI. There is also little doubt about the warnings that have come from such people as Steven Hawking, Bill Gates, Steve Wozniak, and Elon Musk regarding
the potential dangers that could arise with the development of AI. Hawking, for instance, maintains that
"humans, limited by slow biological evolution, couldn't
compete and would be superseded by A.I." [1]. Hundreds
of scientists issued a signed letter in July, 2015, at the
International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence
in Buenos Aires which warns that AI can potentially be
more dangerous than nuclear weapons: "The ethical
dilemma of bestowing moral responsibilities on robots
calls for rigorous safety and preventative measures that
are fail-safe, or the threats are too significant to risk" [1].
Musk refers to the continuing development of AI as out
"greatest existential threat" while Gates maintains that:
"I am in the camp that is concerned about super
intelligence.First the machines will do a lot of jobs
for us and not be super intelligent. That should be
positive if we manage it well. A few decades after
that though the intelligence is strong enough to be
a concern. I agree with Elon Musk and some others on this and don't understand why some people are not concerned" [1].
OK, then. So how should we be thinking critically
about the possible future ethical ramifications of the
development of AI?
DECEmbEr 2016

∕

At the current rate of research, growth, and progress
within the varying fields of AI, how should we look to
the future in the consideration of possible developments? One might consider the advice of William Kingdon Clifford who, in The Ethics of Belief, championed
the idea of epistemic responsibility: "it is wrong always,
everywhere, and for anyone, to believe anything upon
insufficient evidence" [2]. (See Figure 4.)
To be epistemically responsible is to use logic, reason, and critical thinking in making sound inferences,
formulations, and decisions about how one should
behave ethically. In reference to AI development, this
requires the capacity to ask the right questions prior to
a new technology's potential arrival.
So how should we behave in an epistemically responsible manner in this regard? A number of caveats precede any research into AI. However, I believe that which
requires the most careful consideration involves our
preparation for the potential emergence of self-awareness or consciousness in AI. And this is because without
consciousness, AI systems must act in direct accordance
with their programs. It is the capacity for self-awareness
and self-preservation in AI systems that gives us our
greatest concern. In order to understand how such an
emergence of consciousness may be possible in AI, we
need to have a good working knowledge of what consciousness is and how it developed in our own species.

What is Consciousness?
Unlike any other species, we Homo sapiens have what
appears to be the most highly developed level of consciousness of all species on the planet. But what, exactly, is consciousness? When, exactly, did it develop and
emerge in us? And what evolutionary advantages would
it have given our ancestors? I will provide a brief functional definition which at least covers some of the necessary conditions that should adequately serve our
purposes here.
1) First of all, human consciousness involves perceptual awareness of our environment. But all species
(from amoeba to zebra) have perceptual awareness
of their environments.
2) Unlike most species, however, we are aware that we
are aware of ourselves, our environment, and the
relationship between the two. In other words, we are
self-aware that we are both distinct from and a part of
(an) ecology. This is what we could refer to as a type
of second order or meta perception or what is often
referred to as metawareness.
3) We also have the capacity to recognize the relationship between our beliefs and our ecology. We can,
through trial and error, modify our ideas, concepts,
and actions in the attempt to increase the likelihood
of our survival and reproductive capacities in relation

IEEE TEchnology and SocIETy MagazInE

Table of Contents for the Digital Edition of IEEE Technology and Society Magazine - December 2016