IEEE Electrification Magazine - December 2013 - 49

the method used to charge the battery. Various methods
can be adopted to safely charge Li-ion batteries. the method shown in Figure 3(a) is called constant current-
constant voltage (cc-cV), which is adopted by a majority
of the onboard battery chargers. the rate at which a battery is discharged relative to its maximum capacity is
known as the c-rate. the basic idea behind this technique
is that the battery is charged with a constant current, typically rated at 0.5-1 c. When the battery voltage reaches its
cutoff voltage, its voltage is kept fixed and it is charged at
this constant voltage until the current draw decreases to
the end charging current, e.g., 0.02 c, which represents a
full charge. For a deeply depleted battery pack, the battery
voltage might go down to 1 V/cell. in this case, a precharge
stage is required to charge the battery voltage from 1 V/
cell to 2.5 V/cell. in the precharge stage, the charging current is fixed at a constant rate (typically 0.1 c).
to increase the charge acceptance rate of the battery,
multistage cc-cV (Mcc-cV) has been proposed. the principle is almost the same as cc-cV. however, instead of
providing the battery with one constant current level,
several current steps are applied up to the cutoff voltage
as shown in Figure 3(b).
in addition, a few other charging methods with less
impact on battery polarization and higher charge acceptance rates are being investigated. one approach
discharges the battery at specific time intervals during
charging to increase the charging acceptance. this
approach can be applied to both cc-cV and Mcc-cV

Figure 2. A Tesla Model S being charged at the University of Maryland, College Park.

techniques. a simplified example of the cc-cV method
with negative pulses is shown in Figure 4(a). another
approach uses a variable pulse charge strategy. in this
approach, the optimal pulse charge frequency is continuously varied to distribute ions in the electrolyte evenly.
Between pulses, a variable rest period is applied to neutralize and diffuse the ions. this rest period is defined by a
maximum power point tracker to determine the maximum level of current acceptance for a given Soc in real
time. a typical waveform of the variable frequency associated with pulse charging is shown in Figure 4(b). Using
this method, the charge rate can be increased in comparison to conventional cc-cV and fixed-frequency pulse
charging methods.

TAbLe 2. The charging characteristics and infrastructures of some of the commercially available

PeVs.

Vehicle

EV Type

Price

Battery

OBC (kW)

E-Range (mi)

Connector Type

Charging Time (h)
Level 1

Level 2

Nissan
Leaf

EV

US$35,200

24-kWh
Li-ion

3.3

100

SAE J1772
JARI/TEPCO

22

8

BMW
ActiveE

EV

Lease only

32-kWh
Li-ion

7.2

100

SAE J1772

8-10

4-5

Ford Focus

EV

US$39,200

23-kWh
Li-ion

6.6

76

SAE J1772

20

3-4

EV

US$29,125

16-kWh
Li-ion

3.3

62

SAE J1772
JARI/TEPCO

22.5

7

Honda Fit

EV

Lease only

20-kWh
Li-ion

3.3

76

SAE J1772

6

3

Toyota
Prius

PHEV

US$32,000

4.4-kWh
Li-ion

3.3

15

SAE J1772

3

1.5

Chevy Volt

PHEV

US$39,145

16-kWh
Li-ion

3.3

35

SAE J1772

10

4

Cadillac
ELR

PHEV

n/a

16.5-kWh
Li-ion

3.3

35

SAE J1772

n/a

4.5

Tesla
Model S

EV

US$95,400

85-kWh
Li-ion

10

265

Mobile connector

34

14

Mitsubishi I

Note: Specification data are based on public information and are subject to change.

	

IEEE Electrific ation Magazine / d ec em be r 2 0 1 3

49



Table of Contents for the Digital Edition of IEEE Electrification Magazine - December 2013

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https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/pes/electrification_december2022
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/pes/electrification_september2022
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/pes/electrification_june2022
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/pes/electrification_march2022
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/pes/electrification_december2021
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/pes/electrification_september2021
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/pes/electrification_june2021
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/pes/electrification_march2021
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/pes/electrification_december2020
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/pes/electrification_september2020
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/pes/electrification_june2020
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/pes/electrification_march2020
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/pes/electrification_december2019
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/pes/electrification_september2019
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/pes/electrification_june2019
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/pes/electrification_march2019
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/pes/electrification_december2018
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/pes/electrification_september2018
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/pes/electrification_june2018
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/pes/electrification_december2017
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/pes/electrification_september2017
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/pes/electrification_march2018
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/pes/electrification_june2017
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/pes/electrification_march2017
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/pes/electrification_june2016
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/pes/electrification_december2016
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/pes/electrification_september2016
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/pes/electrification_december2015
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/pes/electrification_march2016
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/pes/electrification_march2015
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/pes/electrification_june2015
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/pes/electrification_september2015
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/pes/electrification_march2014
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/pes/electrification_june2014
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/pes/electrification_september2014
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/pes/electrification_december2014
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/pes/electrification_december2013
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/pes/electrification_september2013
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