IEEE Power & Energy Magazine - January/February 2014 - 36

Restoration challenges can be subdivided
into three areas: regulatory, economic,
and technical.

energize the transmission high-voltage grid. with significant
circuits in the transmission network energized, it is relatively
straightforward to pick up the subtransmission system, start
to restore some system load, and supply auxiliary power to
selected power plants to bring generation back online. this
is an example of a top-down restoration, where the highvoltage grid is energized first and then used to energize the
lower-voltage networks.
in the case of a widespread blackout, however, there
may be no help from neighboring systems. in this case,
system restoration must begin from preselected generating
units that have the ability to start themselves, i.e., that do
not require any external power sources. these units, called
black-start units (bsUs) or black-start resources (bsrs), are
then used as the kernels with which to start the restoration
process. this can be considered a bottom-up restoration,
starting from an individual generating unit and emanating
outward toward the critical system load. of course to speed
the restoration process, this black-start sequence will probably occur using several generating units simultaneously and
independently; these independent islands of generation and
load will later be synchronized so as to restore the original
power system.
restoration can, of course, be accomplished by combining the approaches described above. in the case of a total
blackout, it is important to decide how quickly to energize
the high-voltage system. as will be discussed in more detail
below, energizing the high-voltage system is more difficult
and usually requires that large generating units be online. if
a high-voltage overlay can be successfully established, however, it will generally lead to faster restoration of the loads.

Restoration Plans and Procedures
restoration plans and procedures must be developed, clearly
delineating the actions to be undertaken and the responsibilities of each of the parties. these procedures must meet
established reliability criteria and be able to be implemented
by system operators at a central control center, a local control center, or both.
restoration plans define the sequence of steps and cranking paths needed to restore power to critical loads and generation facilities from bsrs. ideally, the bsrs are able to start
quickly and energize secure transmission paths. a backbone
network is formed so that critical load can be restored-in
particular, stabilizing loads for the bsrs and auxiliary loads
at power plants without black-start capability.
36

ieee power & energy magazine

the restoration plan focuses on restoring the key system
elements (generating stations, transmission lines, substations,
and loads) that facilitate restoration of additional facilities. in
particular, flexibility is important because major equipment
may be out of service and not be available to assist in the restoration process. For example, restoration of a generation plant
or substation with multiple transmission outlets is preferable
to restoration of a location with a single path. this also illustrates the need for simplicity: the more complex a plan is, the
more chances there are that a key component or action cannot
be performed when or in the manner required.
in order to be able to fully restore the system, the restoration plan must be able to reenergize the transmission system
to major generating facilities in a timely manner and also
reach interconnection points with neighboring systems to
form a larger and usually more stable grid. the supply of
off-site power to nuclear power plant auxiliary systems is
also a priority for those systems with nuclear generation.
the restoration plans and procedures must also address a
myriad of other topics, including:
✔ staffing and communication requirements
✔ the training of control center staff and field staff
needed to perform switching actions
✔ communication protocols among control centers and
transmission and generation facility operators
✔ the requirements of the bsrs, including technical
issues such as voltage and frequency control capabilities and managerial issues such as maintenance and
adequate fuel supply capability
✔ the testing of the plans, including the starting of bsrs
and drills testing the communication and coordination
of the various power system operators.

Restoration Studies and Analysis
each transmission operator is required to have plans, procedures, and resources available to restore the electric system
following a partial or total shutdown of the system. the standards also require each transmission operator and balancing
authority to verify their restoration procedure by actual testing or through simulation.
restoration testing is a complex process. the testing of
bsUs requires starting and running the units for a limited
period of time, processes that involve straightforward procedures. the coordination of the test period, however, is
complicated by considerations of staffing requirements, environmental emission restrictions, and the requirements of the
january/february 2014



Table of Contents for the Digital Edition of IEEE Power & Energy Magazine - January/February 2014

IEEE Power & Energy Magazine - January/February 2014 - Cover1
IEEE Power & Energy Magazine - January/February 2014 - Cover2
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IEEE Power & Energy Magazine - January/February 2014 - Cover3
IEEE Power & Energy Magazine - January/February 2014 - Cover4
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