IEEE Power & Energy Magazine - July/August 2019 - 78

Other questions posed were
✔ What actions could be taken to ensure that enough
ERSs are available while the resource mix continues
to evolve?
✔ Are there specific benefits or risks posed by variable
energy resources and distributed energy resources?
The risks of fuel scarcity, supply interruption, and disruption must be fully recognized in the assessment of transmission
security and ERSs for the grid. This assessment should differentiate between fuel security and just-in-time fuel supplies that address fuel scarcity during extreme events. For
instance, during several days in January 2018, the New England area continued to operate only because oil-fired generation
facilities could increase production from their typical contribution (i.e., lower than 1% of total generation annually) to more
than 35% of total generation in the region. These facilities are
at severe risk of retirement, and their likely loss triggers the
need for developing a new set of generation alternatives. Similar to a diversified stock portfolio, a diverse generation mix can
help protect against price spikes and the volatility associated
with an overreliance on any individual generation source at
any given time. A diversified generation mix includes all technologies: natural gas, clean coal, nuclear, hydro, and renewable resources as well as energy storage. There is a critical link
between energy security, energy independence, grid resilience,
and ultimately, national security. As planned attacks designed
to inflict maximum disruption to electric grid operations
become a growing concern, a diverse electricity generation
mix better absorbs, withstands, and recovers from an attack
than a single generation technology or fuel source.
The following are conclusions and recommendations
addressing generation mix.
1) An adequate mix of fuel-secure and fuel-independent
technologies is key to maintaining enough ERSs able
to withstand primary resource (e.g., water, solar, wind,
natural gas, and so on) disruptions, price volatility,
and natural disasters and human-made disturbances
on the electric grid. For this reason, conventional generation resources are expected to remain critical for
system reliability in the future.
2) It is important to define updated reliability standards,
which account for changes in the generation mix.
NERC (N-1) planning and operation criteria are difficult to satisfy without reliable generation to redispatch
and mitigate criteria violation. For example, there are
no systematic reliability criteria for the planning and
operational effects of the natural gas delivery system
on the electric power system.
To properly address modern grid resilience and reliability
needs, in addition to the effect of a changing generation
resource mix on ERSs, it is necessary to consider extreme
natural events [such as earthquakes, hurricanes, floods, fires,
and geomagnetic disturbances (GMDs)], cyber and physical
security vulnerability, asset management and maintenance,
and the need for a skilled workforce.
78

ieee power & energy magazine

In summary, it is critical to have a consistent regulatory
framework that supports investments in grid modernization (including the deployment of monitoring, protection,
automation, and control technologies; telecommunications
infrastructure; power electronics; energy storage; and new
materials) at the state and federal levels to address the aforementioned challenges.

The Rise of DERs and Lessons Learned
The adoption of DER technologies at the T&D system level
has become one of the key drivers for transforming the electric utility industry. Although the term DERs is commonly
used in the industry, there is no uniform definition. The
National Association of Regulatory Utility Commissioners
uses the following broad definition:
A resource sited close to customers that can provide
all or some of their immediate electric and power
needs and can also be used by the system to either
reduce demand [such as energy efficiency (EE)] or
provide supply to satisfy the energy, capacity, or ancillary service needs of the distribution grid. The
resources, if providing electricity or thermal energy,
are small in scale, connected to the distribution system, and close to load. Examples of different types
of DERs include solar photovoltaic (PV), wind, combined heat and power (CHP), energy storage, demand
response (DR), electric vehicles (EVs), microgrids,
and EE.
As of 2017, the contribution from behind-the-meter PVdistributed generation, small-scale CHP, residential smart
thermostats, EVs, and energy storage reached 46.4 GW during the U.S. summer peak (compared to the 769-GW summerpeak load reached by the entire U.S. power system in 2016).
By 2023, this contribution is expected increase to 104  GW,
which would represent a very valuable source of flexible
capacity enabled by using smart inverters.
The interconnection of DERs (particularly of renewable
distributed generation technologies such as PV and wind)
may impact the operations and planning of T&D grids. Distribution grids, in particular, may experience greater effects
because, traditionally, they have not been designed to integrate these types of technology.
The suboptimal integration of IBRs can trigger hidden costs and operational risks, as demonstrated during
the Southern California 2016 and 2017 events, when a
number of PV plants disconnected from the grid, resulting from their inability to ride through voltage and frequency variations caused by faults on the transmission
system. Some of the findings from these events include
the following:
1) Issues can arise from inverter settings and the way in
which the inverter calculates voltages (e.g., root mean
square versus peak) and frequency. It is important for
inverters to accurately calculate instantaneous frequency during power system disturbances.
july/august 2019



IEEE Power & Energy Magazine - July/August 2019

Table of Contents for the Digital Edition of IEEE Power & Energy Magazine - July/August 2019

Contents
IEEE Power & Energy Magazine - July/August 2019 - Cover1
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IEEE Power & Energy Magazine - July/August 2019 - Cover3
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