Food Protection Trends - September/October 2020 - 359

59% females) and were observed engaging in more cleaning
practices of stalls when compared with males (56% males
and 95% females). Conversely, male farmers reported
a preference for using organic fertilizers on vegetable
plots, compared with female farmers (63% and 39%,
respectively). Furthermore, male distributors, more often
than female respondents (71% and 33%, respectively),
reported storing leftover vegetables at room temperature.
Both male and female collectors reported using cars as their
primary mode of transportation for delivering vegetables
and similar percentages reported not cleaning vehicles
before delivery (30% of males and 37% of females). Overall,
females represent a higher population of vegetable value
chain actors than males, especially at the retail level (Fig. 6).
DISCUSSION
Overall, results suggest that the flow of vegetables in the
value chain agrees with the results of Sokhen et al. (38).
The flow of the value chain remains consistent, as findings
from this study suggest a close relationship between actors
in the value chain (e.g., distributors always purchase from
the same collectors). Distribution of vegetables is also
consistent with the existing literature, which reports that
leafy greens and salad vegetables (e.g., lettuce, cucumbers)
are grown in larger quantities than other types of vegetables
on local farms (38).
Findings revealed that value chain actors practiced several
behaviors that may contribute to cross-contamination at

various stages of the value chain. These practices include the
use of inadequately composted manure, improper intervals
between manure application and harvest, infrequent
washing practices, improper handling of cut vegetables, and
unsanitary practices during transport and sale. In terms of
soil amendments, findings from the study are inconsistent
with results in the literature, which suggest that 80% of
Cambodian farmers utilize fresh manure (11). Nonetheless,
fresh manure as well as animal waste "compost" were used
by farmers (33% and 11%, respectively). Evidence from the
scientific literature suggests the predominant use of swine
manure in Cambodian farms (19). Improperly composted
swine manure is a known source of foodborne pathogens,
such as Salmonella enterica (12, 15, 18). Responses to
questions on composting methods were inconsistent,
indicating that farmers may not be following specific
guidelines on composting. Cambodia has adopted Codex
Alimentarius texts for food safety, and these do not have
specific recommendations on composting procedures;
however, guidelines from foreign regulatory bodies (e.g.,
the United States Food & Drug Administration) require
that compost must meet specific criteria - for temperature,
number of turns, and aging time and composition-
which are not met by Cambodian farmers (43). For
this reason, "compost" used by the Cambodian farmers
does not meet international recommendations and may
support the transfer of pathogens to vegetables (6, 29, 36).
Furthermore, responses on the interval between manure
Figure 6

FIGURE 6. Gender demographic of value-chain respondents (102 farmers, 21 collectors, 30 distributors, 100 vendors).

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Food Protection Trends - September/October 2020

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