Food Protection Trends - January/February 2023 - 19

concluded that training on the farm may differ by farm size
due to this factor. Parker et al. (24) found that although
there may be scale-dependent differences in produce safety
practices and needs, outreach professionals should not make
assumptions based solely on the size of a produce operation.
In several studies, the authors noted that consumers often
assume that " safer " produce comes from small farms (6, 26,
31). In the northeastern United States, many consumers perceive
produce safety risks to be greater on large conventional
farms and often choose to purchase produce from small
organic farms instead (6, 26, 31). However, these consumer
perceptions also may vary regionally; Parker et al. (22) addressed
an underlying assumption in the midwestern United
States that produce from small farms actually poses a greater
food safety risk than does produce from large farms.
External factor influencing produce safety needs: farm type
The burden of compliance is not equal for all types of
Figure 2. Identified produce safety needs and influencing
factors for small- and medium-sized growers.
Lichtenberg (2) found that more work is required for growers
outside the western United States to meet federal regulatory
compliance. In a recent study of the use of biological soil
amendments across the United States, and variety of practices
were found (25). Cultural differences specific to geographic
areas may impact the needs and preferences of groups of
small- and medium-sized growers (31). In their work with
Amish and Mennonite communities in New York, Reid et al.
(31) found that outreach and education must be tailored to
the specific cultural needs of their audience.
External factor influencing produce safety needs: farm size
Growers' produce safety needs differ by the size of the
operation partly because the PSR affects farms of different
scales differently and because practices differ depending on
the operation's size and enterprise scale (3). Smaller farms
often need to alter practices more than do larger farms to
achieve regulatory compliance (3). For example, small- to
medium-sized farms are heavily dependent on biological
soil amendments of animal origin; thus, growers who use
manure-based amendments need additional education on
mitigation of produce contamination (25).
The financial burden of regulatory compliance for growers
differs by farm size; the estimated cost per acre to meet
regulatory compliance decreases as total acreage increases
(1, 18). Smaller farms have an estimated compliance cost
of ≥1.0 to 3.0% of their annual produce sales (1, 8). There
also may be a difference in growers' knowledge of or access
to information about the PSR by farm size, although in one
survey no significant difference in GAPs knowledge was
found by farm size (15). Pires et al. (25) examined food
safety needs by the number of employees on the farm and
farms. Certified organic growers may already have adopted
some food safety practices, therefore needing fewer changes
for regulatory compliance (7, 30). The FDA may adopt
National Organic Program standards for some recommended
practices, such as the timing of manure applications (25). In
contrast, some study results have indicated that the cost of
compliance for " sustainable " growers may be greater than that
for conventional growers (1, 2).
The burden of compliance for growers also differs by
crop (8). A nationwide USDA study delineated the cost of
compliance by main crop; for example, growers of romaine
lettuce have less work to do to achieve regulatory compliance
than do growers of snap beans (8).
Perhaps in support of the findings by Bihn et al. (7) related
to grower overconfidence, Jackson et al. (15) found no
significant difference in the GAPs-related needs of grower
respondents by the number of years they had been farming.
External factor influencing produce safety needs: market
Current practices and needs may differ based on the
primary market channel of the grower, although research
on this topic has produced conflicting results (19, 32).
Prior to the PSR, adoption of produce safety practices was
voluntary (20). Some growers were motivated by buyers to
attain third-party food safety certification to protect their
economic interests (20, 29). Researchers at the University of
Maryland and the University of Delaware surveyed growers
in the mid-Atlantic United States and found that although
a low percentage of the growers were GAPs certified, a
significantly higher rate for adoption of food safety practices
was found among growers who primarily sold their fresh
produce through wholesale channels (19). Schmit et al. (32)
found that in New York smaller farms sold primarily through
direct-to-consumer markets and were less likely to have a
third-party audit, whereas larger farms sold primarily through
wholesale markets and were more likely to have a third-party
January/February Food Protection Trends
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Food Protection Trends - January/February 2023

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