IEEE Electrification Magazine - June 2014 - 64

a main consideration of eVs (pheVs and BeVs) is the
difference in cost compared to CVs. Currently, eVs can
cost as much as double the price of a CV. the reason for
this is the high cost of the electric technology, particularly
the battery system.

Electricity Generation Mix and Pricing Schemes

Figure 3. A comparison of an EV and a CV.

also a pheV; it has an electric range of 14.3 mi and a lithium-ion battery with a maximum capacity of 4.4 kWh
that can be charged in 3 h at 120 V or 1.5 h at 240 V. the
price of the toyota prius in the united states is
us$32,000. the nissan leaf is a fully electric-powered
vehicle with a 24-kWh lithium-ion battery. the battery
can be fully recharged in 8 h at 240 V. the price of the
nissan leaf in the united states is us$35,200. the toyota
Corolla is completely CV powered by an iCe of 1.8 l and
four cylinders. it has a fuel economy of 26 mi/g in city
and can be purchased for us$17,000 in the u.s. market.
table 1 summarizes the specifications for these vehicles,
provided on their Web sites.

Extraction

Upgrading

Resources

Crude Transport

Electricity Generation

Well to Refinery/Grid
Well to Tank/Battery
Well to Wheel

Figure 4. The well-to-wheel analysis.

I E E E E l e c t r i f i c ati o n M agaz ine / j un e 2014

California's in-state electricity generation reached a total
of 200,414 GWh in 2011 to satisfy 71% of the state electricity demand. Figure 5 shows the fuel sources for electric
power generation by electric companies in California.
the environmental impact of electricity generation in
power plants highly depends on the characteristics of the
power generation mix used. in generation mixes, for scenarios in which high-carbon fuels such as coal and oil are
the main sources of energy, the carbon intensity increases,
resulting in higher well-to-wheel GhG emissions (mainly
Co2) per kilowatthour generated. in this sense, the sources
of energy used in the power generation mix makes California's electricity generation among the cleanest in the united states because of a high contribution of carbon-free
energy technologies (natural gas, nuclear, hydro, and
renewables) combined with a low level of coal. this has led
to an estimated Co2 intensity of 273 g/kWh (gCo2/kWh)
overall for this state. in indiana, where the generation mix
heavily relies on coal (69% in 2011), the rate of Co2 emission
per unit of electricity is 937 gCo2/kWh. the u.s. national
average is 620 gCo2/kWh, while the current carbon intensity for the european electric sector is 410 gCo2/kWh.
the electricity prices for the residential sector in California vary according to the utility companies that provide the
service. Currently, pacific Gas & electric Company (pG&e) provides the electricity for the majority of the state, including
los angeles, san Jose, san Francisco, and other major cities.

Refinery

Refined Transport

Electric Grid

Distribution

Charging Station

CVs

EVs

Table of Contents for the Digital Edition of IEEE Electrification Magazine - June 2014